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OUTLINES OF 

EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY 

BASED ON WEBSTER’S 
EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY 


BY 

WALTER JORGENSEN YOUNG 

u 

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL SCIENCE 
STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE 
FREDERICKSBURG, VIRGINIA 



D. C. HEATH AND COMPANY 

BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO LONDON 
ATLANTA DALLAS SAN FRANCISCO 

* 


Copyright, 1925, 

By D. C. Heath and Company 

2 G5 



C 

< 

< 


©Cl A86l4fi*> 

PRINTED IN U.S.A. 


4JJC18 "25 


SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 


This Outline will aid the teacher, and it may also with profit 
be placed in the hands of the pupils. 

Questions 

The questions are for the most part thought questions. The 
answers are found in the sections of the text indicated by the 
paragraph numbers, and on the pages indicated by the numbers 
in brackets. 

Outline Building 

Have each pupil keep a notebook. Organize the notebook in 
the following manner: 

Turn to the Table of Contents in the textbook. Copy the 
chapter number, the chapter title, the section number, and the 
section title. 

For example: 

Chapter I. The Ages Before History. 

Section 1. The Study of History. 

A. History is the story of what civilized man has done. 

It tells of the rise, progress, and decline of social 
groups called states and nations. 

B. (Teacher or pupil write the answer to Question 2 in 

the Outline.) 

C. (Write the answer to Question 3.) 

D. (Write the answer to Question 4.) 

Section 2. Prehistoric Peoples. 

(Continued as above.) 


3 


4 


Early European History 

In preparing the Outline encourage spontaneity and freedom 
in the search for knowledge. By following this method, the 
pupils will rapidly learn to make their own outlines and will have 
in their notebooks the important facts and principles for review 
and testing. Both teacher and class will obtain profit and 
pleasure in this pursuit. 

Study and discuss with textbooks open. By supervised study 
or by oral reading, seek the answers to the questions. In the 
discussion lead the pupils to criticize their answers freely. Let 
each pupil profit by hearing the answers and criticisms of others. 
A good method is to underscore in the book the answers to ques¬ 
tions from the Outlines. 

The notebooks will be much alike, but encourage individual 
differences. See that the notebooks are neat, well organized, and 
written in ink. In review, books may be either open or shut. 
When testing, either orally or in writing, remove textbooks, note¬ 
books, and extraneous paper. 

* Questions, Relations, and Objectives 

Remember that thought questions are intended to help both 
pupil and teacher to do some thinking. Answers to about nine 
out of ten questions are found specifically printed in the book. 
In about one question out of ten, however, the answer is indicated’ 
in the textbook, but interpretation by the pupil from previous 
study is necessary for a complete answer. 

All questions are related to those which precede or follow. As 
you find the answers, look back and note that they tell a con¬ 
tinuous story. They develop the lessons as they proceed. 

Keep close watch on the objectives of each chapter. Notice 
how the answers to the questions develop the objectives. 

When you come to the end of an era (for example, Chapters 
IV, V, and VI), have the class notice that following the objectives 
has developed the theme or story of the textbook. This will be 
found profitable. 


Suggestions to Teachers 


5 


Topical Arrangement and Dates 

At the end of each era, check up from the Date Table in the 
Appendix of the textbook, pp. 726 ff. Your text is topically 
arranged. Pupils are at times bewildered as to what is happen¬ 
ing in different countries at the same time. By following occa¬ 
sionally the main date schedules (in italics), your class can 
easily correct their ideas on matters about which they have be¬ 
come confused. 

The eras are indicated in the Date Appendix by bold-faced 
type. The dates to be remembered are those in italics. 

For Fullness and Variety 

Include in your notebooks the answers to the Studies at the 
end of each chapter in the text. 

Professor Webster has included excellent material in his 
Readings in Ancient History and Readings in Medieval and 
Modern History. References will be found in the footnotes at 
the bottom of the page at the beginning of each chapter in the 
text. Let the readings be oral, free, and pleasurable, and not so 
long as to be wearisome. The pupils should feel free to discuss 
such points as may arise in their reading. 

Inviting variety may also be secured through biography. 
Plutarch's Lives and Lord's Beacon Lights of History are espe¬ 
cially good. Assign to pupils one report each school month on 
the biographies of men and women found in these and other 
similar collections. 

In sending forth this Outline, it is hoped that interest, pleasure, 
and zest will be added to the study of history in connection with 
an exceptionally readable and interesting text. Special notes 
covering specific important principles of a general nature are 
distributed throughout the Outlines. Summaries are added at 
the end of each chapter. 

Due acknowledgement is hereby made for the suggestions and 


6 


Early European History 

criticisms of Miss Abbie Louise Day, of the Departments of 
History and Education in the Fredericksburg (Va.) State 
Teachers College, and for the assistance given by the third-year 
class in Modern European History in checking up and testing 
the work. 


Fredericksburg, Va. 
May, 1925. 


Walter Jorgensen Young 


EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY 


CHAPTER I 

The Ages before History 

Objective. — To view briefly pre-history 
with an idea of understanding what progress 
civilization has made since the beginning of 
recorded history. 

1. Why do we regard history as the story of human progress? 
(p. 1.) Where do we get our information (the data) about 
human history? (pp. 1-2.) Why does recorded history seem 
comparatively recent as compared to all history? (p. 4.) What 
is the value of studying early European history? (p. 3.) 

2. How do we classify the ages of pre-history? (pp. 3-4.) 
Why does this seem a good classification? (Stone tools — 
savagery; metal tools — barbarism and civilization; iron tools 
— civilization, see p. 4.) What were the advantages of bronze 
over stone and of iron over bronze? (pp. 4-5.) Why would a 
people with iron tools and weapons be likely in the struggle for 
existence to overcome a people with bronze tools? (People with 
superior weapons and tools could overcome enemies and prevent 
famines.) 

3. Why did all savage and barbarous peoples lead a nomadic 
life? (p. 5.) How was the agricultural stage better adapted for 
supplying human wants than its predecessors? (p. 8.) What 
other advantages did agricultural peoples derive from this mode 
of living? (p. 8.) Why was domestication of animals a great 
advantage? (p. 7.) 


7 


8 


Early European History 

4. Why would picture writing naturally be the earliest 
form of writing? (p. 8.) What is the disadvantage of word 
signs (hieroglyphs) as compared with the alphabet? (p. 9.) 
What is the historic significance of the beginning of writing? 
(p. 11.) 

5. What were some of the arts in which human beings were 
skilled at the beginning of the period of recorded history? 
(pp. 11-15.) Why are we so interested in the beginnings of 
reckoning and the calendar? (p. 12.) Why are art and architec¬ 
ture indicative of advancing civilization? (p. 13.) Why do you 
think early peoples were willing to raise colossal structures? 
(p. 15.) 

6. Can we accurately classify races of men? Why? (p. 15.) 
Why are we specially interested in the Semitic and Indo-European 
groups and their history? (p. 16.) What peoples may be roughly 
classified as Indo-European? (p. 16.) As Semitic? (p. 17.) 

Summary. — Civilization, which covers the brief span begin¬ 
ning with the Iron Age and recorded history, has made great 
strides in social organization and in the art of living, as well as 
in supporting greater populations on limited land areas as com¬ 
pared with savagery in the Stone Age. 

CHAPTER II 

The Lands and Peoples of the East to about 500 B.c. 

Objective. — To study the civilizations of 
antiquity so as to gain a comprehension of 
how organized society developed. 

7. From a study of the map opposite p. 21, explain how the 
mountains of Asia divide its river valleys into three groups. 
What civilizations grew up in these river valleys? (pp. 19-21.) 
Why were two of the seven countries of the Near East best fitted 
to become the homes of early civilizations? (p. 21.) 


9 


Lands and Peoples of the East 

8. Why did Babylonia become attractive to ancient peoples? 
(p. 22.) How does this help to account for frequent barbarian 
conquests? (p. 21.) What divides Upper from Lower Egypt? 
(p. 23.) Why was Egypt properly called the “ gift of the Nile? ” 
(p. 23.) 

9. Who was the most famous king of early Babylonia? 
(p. 25.) Why does he deserve to be remembered? (p. 25.) 
Why were the laws of Hammurabi necessarily so crude and 
severe? (p. 50.) Of what interest to us are Menes and Rameses 
II? (pp. 26 and 28.) 

10. From what centers did the Hebrews and Phoenicians 
derive their culture? (cp. p. 33 with map opposite p. 20.) What 
influence did the geographic position of Palestine have on the 
downfall of the Hebrew nation? (p. 33.) Can you name some 
“ buffer ” states of modern times? What influence did the 
Phoenicians have on the westward spread of civilization? 
(p. 48 f.) 

11. Why may Assyrian rule be viewed more as a curse than 
a blessing? (p. 34). Can you compare the Assyrians with a 
modern nation ruling in the same region? (p. 333.) What one 
political achievement can be credited to them? (p. 34.) What 
was the probable fate of the Ten Tribes of Israel? (p. 35.) 

12. What was the chief work of the Persian kings? (p. 39.) 
How did they control their vast dominions? (pp. 39-40.) What 
other people besides the Persians were to use military roads? 
(p. 157.) Were these roads of advantage for other than military 
purposes? (p. 40.) 

Summary. — European civilization was influenced chiefly 
from Babylon and Egypt. The Babylonians and Egyptians 
developed highly organized and centralized despotic govern¬ 
ments and many arts and sciences as well as religions. By the 
Phoenicians these were spread to the western Mediterranean and 
so to Northwestern Europe. 


10 


Early European History 


CHAPTER III 
Oriental Civilization 

Objective. — To know how people lived 
in ancient Oriental society. 

13. Why are we able to read hieroglyphs? (p. 42.) What 
five social classes do we recognize in the ancient Orient? (pp. 
42-44.) What work did a king do? (p. 43.) What was the lot 
of slaves? (p. 44.) 

14. How was farming carried on? (p. 44.) Did ancient 
peoples show much skill in manufactures? Along what lines? 
(p. 46.) Why was coinage an advantage? (p. 47.) What uses 
besides religious worship did temples serve? (p. 47.) 

15. Why was Nineveh a good place for a trading city? (Study 
map, p. 48.) What items of commerce did the Near East get 
from the Far East? (p. 48.) What items of commerce did the 
Near East get from Europe? (pp. 48-49.) Why did the Phoeni¬ 
cians take to the sea for a living? (p. 49.) Why were the 
Phoenicians great colonizers? (p. 50.) 

16. Was any distinction made in punishments between differ¬ 
ent social classes in ancient Babylon? (p. 51.) What influence 
did the code of Hammurabi have on the Hebrews? (p. 52.) Why 
was the Mosaic code a good one? (p. 52.) 

17. Why were the Babylonians so famous? (p. 53.) What 
do we get from the astrologers? (p. 53.) In what countries 
did monotheism arise? (p. 54.) Which of these countries most 
influenced the world? Why? (p. 54.) 

18. What Oriental literature is still generally read? Why? 
(pp. 57-58.) Why was the architecture of Egypt unlike that 
of Babylonia? (p. 58.) What use did the Babylonians and 
Egyptians make of sculpture? (p. 59.) 

19. What was the Babylonian basis of reckoning or counting? 
What do we have now that reminds us of this system? (p. 60.) 


The Rise of Greece 


11 


What mechanical devices were known by the ancients? (p. 61- 
62.) Describe a temple school. Was it like ours? (p. 62.) 
Why was a scribe a busy man? (p. 63.) Why did the people 
of the Orient remain conservative? (p. 63.) 

Summary. ■— In liberal and fine arts, the Oriental peoples were 
advanced. Their social classes resembled those of the Middle 
Ages in Europe. In literature and science they were greatly 
surpassed by the Greeks and Romans. 

CHAPTER IV 

The Lands of the West and the Rise of Greece to about 
500 B.c. 

Objective. — To study the rise of the 
Greek city-state and to show the different 
forms of government. 

20. What four peninsulas jut into the Mediterranean sea? 
(map opposite p. 66.) What divides southern from northern 
Europe? (p. 66.) In which region did civilization first develop? 

(p. 66.) 

21. Around what sea did Greek civilization arise? (p. 66.) 
What were the advantages of the location of Greece? (p. 67.) 

22. What stories have come down to us about early Greece? 
(p. 68.) What do we know about the iEgean civilization? 
(p. 71.) What caused the downfall of the iEgean civilization? 
(p. 72.) How do we know that this civilization influenced other 
Mediterranean peoples? (p. 72.) 

23. What do we know about industry and social life in 
Homeric times? (pp. 73-74.) Why was Homeric life described 
as simple? (p. 74.) 

24. Who were the chief Greek divinities? (p. 76.) What 
functions did they serve? (p. 76.) What is meant by “personi¬ 
fications of natural phenomena?” (p. 76.) 


12 


Early European History 

25. How did the Delphic oracle obtain information and pre¬ 
vent mistakes? (pp. 78-79.) How did the Olympic games differ 
from modern athletic games? (p. 79.) What purposes did the 
Olympic games serve in ancient Greece? (p. 81.) 

26. What was the nature of the city-state? (p. 81.) How 
did the city-state develop? (p. 82.) 

27. How did the Spartans organize their government? 
(p. 83.) Why may it be called socialistic? (p. 84.) What was 
the purpose of Spartan education? (pp. 84-85.) 

28. What kind of government did Athens develop? (p. 87.) 
Compare the results of the Athenian form of government with 
those of the Spartan form. (cp. p. 85 with p. 104.) What three 
men were responsible for Athenian law? (pp. 86-87.) 

29. Why did the Greeks become great colonizers? (p. 88.) 
Where were the colonies located? (pp. 88-89.) What city was 
to be their chief rival in the western Mediterranean? (p. 89.) 
What did the Greeks call themselves? (p. 90.) 

30. Why were language, literature, and religion common 
bonds among the Greeks? (p. 90 f.) Are these bonds as enduring 
as a strong government? (cp. pp. 91, 113, 116, and 154.) 

Summary. — The Greeks as the colonizers of antiquity remind 
us of the English people in the world of today. Sparta in state 
socialism and Athens in democracy anticipated some of the 
political and social developments of modern times. Literature, 
philosophy, and science practically originated with the Greeks. 

CHAPTER V 

The Great Age of the Greek Republics to 362 B.C. 

Objective. — To study Greek democracy, 
its strength and weakness. 

31. What part of Greece was first conquered by the Persians? 
(p. 93.) Why was Greece in added peril under Cyrus and 


The Greek Republics 13 

Darius? (p. 94.) What power came to the rescue of the Asiatic 
Greeks? (p. 95.) 

32. Was the battle of Marathon decisive? (p. 96.) How 
did Athens prepare to meet the Persians? (p. 97.) Can you 
think of a modern country which has relied on sea power (navies) 
instead of land power (armies)? (p. 679.) 

33. What happened after Thermopylae? (p. 98.) What was 
the effect of Salamis? (p. 99.) In what respects was the vic¬ 
tory of the Greeks important to us? (p. 100.) What battle 
decided the issue? (p. 100.) 

34. What two important steps did Themistocles and Aristides 
take after the Persian wars? (pp. 100-101.) What changes did 
Cimon make in the Delian league? (p. 102.) How did the 
Spartan allies view the power of Athens? (p. 102.) 

35. Who was the leader of Athens in her golden age? (p. 103.) 
What kind of man was Pericles? (p. 103.) What was the weak¬ 
ness of Athenian imperialism? (pp. 104 and 106.) Describe the 
Athenian democracy? (pp. 104-105.) In what respect did 
Athenian courts differ from ours? (p. 106.) Did Athens give 
freedom to all her people? (p. 107.) What is the effect of 
slavery upon a democracy, (p. 107; cp. p. 224.) 

36. What was the origin of the Peloponnesian war? (p. 109.) 
How did the contestants compare in strength? (p. 109.) What 
caused the downfall of Athens? (p. 110.) 

37. In what respect did Thebes under Epaminondas differ 
from Sparta? (p. 112.) 

38. Why did the city-state decline? (p. 113.) 

Summary. — The lack of national organization was the prime 
cause of the political decline of Greece. The Greeks lacked a 
representative system of government. They were the most 
highly educated and original people in history, and the age of 
Pericles is still uneclipsed as an age of genius. 


14 


Early European History 


CHAPTER VI 

Mingling of East and West after 359 B.C. 

Objective. — To show how Greek culture 
and language became world-wide and the 
consequent results on the Greeks. 

39. Why was the Macedonian military system superior to 
that of the Greek city-states? (p. 116.) Why were the Mace¬ 
donians able to conquer Greece? (p. 116.) 

40. Who was Demosthenes? (p. 117.) What was the policy 
of Philip as conqueror of Greece? (p. 118.) 

41. Give a vivid description of Alexander the Great, (pp. 
119-120.) What showed the Greeks the weakness of the 
Persian power? (p. 120.) Why was Alexander’s conquest of 
Persia so amazing? (p. 122.) 

42. By what steps did Alexander subdue the Persian empire? 
(pp. 122-124.) What other countries did Alexander overrun? 
(pp. 124-125.) Why did his conquests come to an end? (p. 125.) 

43. What was the immediate result of Alexander’s conquests? 
(p. 126.) What were the ultimate results? (p. 126.) In what 
ways did Alexander show himself a statesman? (p. 125.) Note. 
— Bring out the effect upon Greece, that it caused her to be 
depopulated and that it dissipated her energies. 

44. In what respects did the Hellenistic cities differ from the 
Greek cities? (p. 128.) What new cities became important? 
(pp. 128-129.) 

45. Was the Hellenistic age a creative age like that of Pericles? 
(p. 130.) Why was the Alexandrian library of such significance? 
(p. 130.) In what respects does modern science differ from that 
of the ancients? (p. 131.) What was the Ptolemaic Theory? 
When was it finally overthrown? (p. 133; cp. p. 608.) 

46. Did Persian life have a good effect upon the Greeks? 
(pp. 133-134.) What is meant by cosmopolitanism? (p. 135.) 


The Rise of Rome 


15 


Summary. — Alexander alone of all conquerors realized the 
ambition of a united Indo-European world. He spread Greek 
culture throughout the Eastern and Western world, but in 
so doing, depopulated Greece and dissipated her energies. 


CHAPTER VII 

The Rise of Rome to 264 B.c. 

Objective. — To show the character of 
early Romans and how they obtained the 
supremacy of Italy. , 

Note. — From this time forward, it will be necessary to check 
comparative dates at important periods, owing to the topical 
arrangement of the text. These will be found scattered through 
the outline. . 

47. On the map opposite p. 136, locate the northern Italian 
plains of Cisalpine Gaul in the Po river valley. On which side 
of the Apennines are the plains of central Italy? (p. 136.) On 
which side of the mountains are the plains of southern Italy? 
(p. 136.) What was the influence of geographical conditions 
upon Italian history? (p. 137.) 

48. What people inhabited the plains of northern Italy? 
(p. 136; cp. p. 164.) Locate Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul on 
the map opposite p. 184. What two peoples occupied the cen¬ 
tral plains of Italy? (pp. 138-140.) What people established 
themselves on the plains of southern Italy? (p. 139.) 

49. Why was Rome called a city of seven hills? (p. 141.) Of 
what significance are the myths of early Rome? (p. 143.) 

50. In what respects did the early Romans differ from the 
early Greeks? (p. 143; cp. pp. 137 and 67.) In what respects 
did the Roman character set its mark upon history? (p. 
144.) How did the Roman father bring up his children? 
(p. 145.) 


16 


Early European History 

51. What is ancestor worship? (p. 145.) How did the Lares 
and Penates affect Roman daily life? (p. 146.) What was the 
significance of the gates of the temple of Janus? (p. 146.) Who 
were the Vestal virgins? (p. 146.) In what respect did the 
priesthood of Rome differ from Oriental priesthoods? (p. 148.) 
What was the importance of Roman religion? (p. 148.) 

52. How did Rome come to be a republic? (p. 149.) How 
did the plebs win a share in the government? (p. 150.) Com¬ 
pare the state of civilization in Greece and Rome at the time of 
the Twelve Tables in 449 b.c. (p. 150; cp. p. 103.) In what 
respect did the Athenian democracy differ from the Roman 
republic and the American republic? (p. 151; cp. pp. 104-106 
and p. 155.) Why was the Roman senate compared to an 
assembly of kings? (p. 152.) 

53. With what peoples did Rome have to contend for su¬ 
premacy in central Italy? (p. 153.) How did Rome secure con¬ 
trol in southern Italy? (p. 154.) When did Rome secure 
control in northern Italy? (p. 164.) 

54. How did the Romans treat their Italian subjects? (p. 155.) 
Did this attitude at a later time prove of advantage to Rome? 
(p. 166.) In what two ways did Rome unite Italy? (pp. 156- 
157.) To what uses were the Roman roads put? (p. 157.) 

55. What was the Roman method of fighting? (p. 159.) Of 
what use w^ere the fortified camps? (p. 159.) What was said of 
the Romans in war? (p. 160.) 

Summary. — The Romans early showed their sterling quali¬ 
ties of political genius and military strength. They had the 
political sagacity which made possible their long rule of the 
Mediterranean world. They had the ability to absorb Greek 
culture and make use of it. 


The Roman Republic 


17 


CHAPTER VIII 

The Great Age of the Roman Republic, 264 31 B.C. 

Objective. — To learn how Rome gained 
supremacy over the Mediterranean world. 

56. Why was Carthage certain to be a rival of Rome? (p. 162.) 
What two ipomentous events were taking place in 338 b.c. 
(p. 153; cp. p. 118.) Can you picture in your mind what was 
going on in the East and the West at the same time? What did 
Carthage lose as the result of the First Punic War? (p. 164.) 
What lesson did Rome learn as the result of this war? (p. 164; 
think of Athens in this connection, p. 96.) 

57. Who was Hannibal, and what kind of man was he? 
(p. 164.) What kind of tactics did Fabius adopt? Was his 
choice wise? Why? (p. 166.) What was the significance of 
Rome’s victory in the Second Punic War? (p. 167.) Why does 
Rome stand out “grand in disaster” after Cannae? (p. 167.) 

58. Why would the Roman orator Cato be justified in saying 
daily for a year before the Roman senate “Carthage must be 
destroyed” (Carthago delenda est)l (p. 168.) Why was the 
Roman problem of subduing Sicily different from that of sub¬ 
duing Spain? (p. 169.) How did Roman strength contrast with 
that of the effete East? (pp. 170-171.) Who said of the East 
Veni, vidi, vici? What does this mean? (p. 185.) 

59. Did the Romans rule their provinces as they ruled Italy? 
(p. 172.) What four evils grew out of the Roman conquest? 
(pp. 172-173.) What was the influence of Greece upon Rome? 
(p. 174.) 

60. What reforms did the Gracchi attempt? (p. 175.) Were 
their measures wise? Why? (p. 176.) Why did the Gracchi 
fail? (p. 177.) 

61. From this time forward what was increasingly evident 
in Rome? (p. 180 and sect. 62.) 



18 Early European History 

62. How did Cicero win fame? (p. 182.) How does he com¬ 
pare with Demosthenes? (p. 182.) What was Julius Caesar’s 
greatest achievement? (p. 184.) What was the significance of 
his conquest of Gaul? (p. 184.) What was the significance of 
Caesar’s crossing the Rubicon River? (p. 185.) 

63. What reforms did Caesar begin? (p. 186.) What was 
the outcome of Cesar’s murder? (p. 187.) Does there seem to 
be a certain “poetic justice” in the place of his death? Why? 
(p. 187.) 

64. What was the significance of the battle of Philippi? 
(p. 189.) What beautiful woman was the undoing of Antony? 
(p. 189.) What other beautiful woman is a subject of ancient 
history? 

65. What is marked by the battle of Actium? (p. 190.) 

Note. — Go back over your history and memorize the follow¬ 
ing dates and the events they stand for. 539 b.c., 461-429 b.c., 
449 b.c., 338 b.c., 323 b.c., 146 b.c., 44 b.c., 31 b.c., 4 b.c. 

Can you give reasons why the world has often been said “to 
have been prepared for the coming of Christ” at this time? 
This will come only from your general study, but it will have 
special value in interpreting the universal Roman world in that 
day. 

Summary. — The struggle between Rome and Carthage was 
a struggle between Oriental and Occidental civilizations. It 
made possible laying the foundations of individual freedom, 
respect for law, morality, and religion of the virile Grseco-Roman 
type as compared with that of the effete East of today. Rome 
lacked a representative system of government, and raised the 
still debated question, whether a republic can rule over subject 
peoples and survive. 


The Early Empire 


19 


CHAPTER IX 

The Early Empire: the World under Roman Rule, 

31 B.C.-180 A.D. 

Objective. — To see how Rome ruled the 
Mediterranean world. 

66. How did absolute power affect the character of Augustus? 
(p. 194.) What powers did he enjoy? (p. 194.) What did he 
call himself, and what did this name mean? (p. 194.) How 
did Augustus defend the frontiers against the barbarians? 
(p. 195.) How did the presence of these barbarians affect the 
people of the Roman world? (p. 195.) Show that Augustus 
served his day and time. (p. 195.) Explain the rise of emperor 
worship, (p. 196.) 

67. Did the Claudian Caesars leave any permanent marks 
upon Britain? (pp. 197 and 322.) What great event occurred 
during the reign of Vespasian? (p. 199.) Read about this event 
in other books, if you have them. Why was the destruction of 
Pompeii important to history? (p. 200.) 

68. How did modern Rumania get its name? (p. 200.) Why 
do Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius deserve to be remembered? 

(p. 201.) 

69. Was the Roman army any longer Roman? (p. 202.) 
How did the Roman roads serve the empire? (p. 203.) Why 
were the Roman peace and citizenship useful to business men? 
(pp. 204-206.) 

70. What contributions did the Greeks, Romans, and Hebrews 
make to civilization? Why is the Roman law rightly regarded 
as Rome’s imperishable gift to the world? (p. 207; cp. p. 331.) 
How did Latin become the foundation of the provincial lan¬ 
guages? (p. 208.) What languages are called “Romance?” 

(p. 208.) 

71. What were the more important cities of the Roman 


20 Early European History 

empire? (pp. 208-209.) What improvements did these cities 
have as compared with cities in the Middle Ages? (p. 210; cp. 
p. 532.) Did the Roman idea of free cities die out? (p. 210.) 

72. Why did the Roman system promote commerce? (p. 210.) 
Trace on a map the principal trade routes, (p. 211.) How 
did the free laborers protect themselves? (p. 212.) Do we hear 
of these organizations again later? (p. 534.) Why is the 
accumulation of riches in the hands of a few a bad social condi¬ 
tion? (pp. 213-214.) Were conditions in Roman cities worse 
than in modern cities? (p. 214.) 

73. What factors made for the cosmopolitan spirit in Rome? 
(p. 217.) What broad distinction remained between the East 
and the West? (p. 217.) Did this have any effect on later 
Roman history? (p. 223.) 

Summary. — The Romans developed an age of universal 
peace in which commerce and luxury flourished. The empire 
fostered the cosmopolitan spirit and showed that diverse races 
can live under one government in peace and amity if the govern¬ 
ment is highly centralized. 

CHAPTER X 

The Later Empire: Christianity in the Roman World, 
180-395 A.D. 

Objective. — To show how Europe became 
Christianized. 

74. Why were the Germans able to make inroads upon the 
empire in the third century? (p. 219.) Does a government 
that is obliged to depend on its army enjoy stability? (p. 220.) 

75. What weaknesses did Diocletian find in the empire? 
(p. 221.) How did he remedy these defects? (p. 221.) Did 
these reforms succeed? Which one did not? (p. 222.) What 
great religion did Constantine recognize? (p. 222.) Why did 


The Later Empire * 21 

Constantine transfer his capital to Constantinople? (p. 223.) 
What condition became well marked by the end of the fourth 
century? (p. 223.) 

76 . What is meant by the decline and fall of the Roman em¬ 
pire? (p. 224.) Explain the causes of the decline and fall, 
(pp. 224-226.) 

77 . Why did paganism fail to satisfy the spiritual wants of 
mankind? (p. 226.) Why did philosophy fail to meet this 
need? (p. 226.) Which of the Oriental religions before Chris¬ 
tianity made the deepest impression upon the Roman world? 
(p. 228.) What was the significance of the Oriental religions? 
(p. 229.) 

78 . How did Christianity gain impetus as a religion? (p. 229.) 
In what respects was Paul well prepared for the great work he 
undertook? (p. 230.) What circumstances contributed to the 
success of his great missionary enterprise? (pp. 231-232.) Did 
the early church have a hierarchical form of church govern¬ 
ment? (p. 232.) 

79 . Why did Christianity arouse hostility in an age of univer¬ 
sal religious toleration? (pp. 232-233.) What is meant by 
“martyr?” (p.234.) 

80 . How did Constantine introduce Christianity? (p. 235.) 
How was Sunday introduced as a day of rest? (p. 235.) What 
was the significance of the Council of Nicsea? (p. 236.) Did 
the church gain by being made the state religion? (p. 237; see 
p. 440, “twofold duties of church”; cp. p. 646.) 

81 . How did Christianity influence the moral and social life 
of Rome? (p. 237.) Did the new religion have any effect upon 
the Germanic invasions? (p. 237.) 

Summary. — Roman civilization gradually lost its pristine 
vigor. In becoming Christian, however, Roman civilization 
laid the foundations for a better moral and social structure in the 
modern world. 


22 


Early European History, 


CHAPTER XI 

The Germans to 476 A.D. 

Objective. — To show how the Roman 
empire fell to pieces and what modern na¬ 
tions were formed out of it. 

82. What two rivers were the ancient barriers of the Roman 
empire against the barbarians? (pp. 241-245.) Was Germany 
a land favorable to civilization in ancient times? (p. 239.) What 
Roman historian tells us about the Germans? (p. 239.) Refer to 
his description. Why did the Germans begin their migrations? 
(p. 240.) Were their inroads sudden and unexpected? (p. 241.) 

83. Which barrier was broken first? (p. 241.) Why did the 
Visigoths cross the Danube? (p. 242.) What is meant by a 
“decisive battle?” (p. 242.) What was the effect of the decisive 
battle of Adrianople? (p. 243.) Who was the “Marius” of this 
period? (p. 243.) How was the spell of Rome forever broken? 
(p. 244.) What nation grew out of the ancient Visigothic king¬ 
dom? (p. 245.) 

84. How was the Rhine barrier broken? (p. 245.) What 
German tribe founded a modern nation in ancient Gaul? (p. 
245.) Who were the ancestors of the modern English? (p. 246.) 

85. Who were the Huns? (p. 247.) Why has the name 
“Hun” become a byword for fiendish brutality? (p. 247.) Why 
was the battle of Chalons called the “struggle of the nations?” 
(p. 248.) 

86. What has the word “vandalism” come to mean? (p.248.) 
Why is 476 a.d. generally chosen as the date of the end of the 
Roman empire? (p. 249.) 

87. In what respects were the Germans different from the 
Romans? (p. 250.) Why did western Europe fall into bar¬ 
barism? (p. 250.) What were the two constructive forces amid 
the general ruin? How did these two forces affect the future of 


Classical Civilization 


23 


western Europe? (p. 251.) In the long run, were the quickening 
spirit of Christianity and the vigor of the Germans a good thing 
for western Europe? 

As you look back over ancient history, do luxury and vice 
seem to sap the vitality of races? Cite examples. Do hardship 
and suffering seem to discipline races? Cite examples. Are 
democracy and slavery compatible? Are democracy and im¬ 
perial rule over subject peoples compatible? Is imperialism or 
nationalism the more enduring principal? Why? Out of this 
study can you point any lessons for our own America? See if 
you can make a list of these. 


CHAPTER XII 

Classical Civilization 

Objective. — To study classical civiliza¬ 
tion in order to understand how people lived 
and what their achievements were. 

88. How did Greek and Roman cities grow up? (p. 252.) 
Why were the most imposing buildings those for public purposes? 
(p. 252.) How did the citizen occupy himself? (p. 253.) 

89. Why was the male child especially welcomed into the 
family circle? (p. 253.) How did the Roman system of naming 
arise? (p. 254.) In what respects did Greek education differ 
from Roman? From ours? (p. 256.) What special privileges 
of education did people of wealth have? (p. 256.) 

90. What is the dowry? (p. 257.) In what respects did the 
Roman woman have more liberty than the Greek woman? 
(p. 257.) 

91. How did Roman dress differ from ours? (p. 258.) How 
did we get our knowledge concerning the interior and furnishing 
of Roman houses? Describe one. (p. 259.) Compare the day’s 
activities of an Athenian and of a Roman, (pp. 260-262.) 


24 Early European History 

92. How did Greek tragedy and comedy arise? (p. 264.) 
Describe a typical dramatic performance, (p. 265.) Would 
such a performance be likely to amuse people to-day? Why? 
(p. 265.) How did vaudeville originate? (p. 265.) What 
amusements did the Romans develop in the later empire? 
(pp. 267-8.) What effect did these things have on the people? 

(p. 268.) 

93. Why were Greek and Roman civilizations founded on 
slavery? (p. 269.) How did slaves fare in ancient society? 
(p. 269.) What influence did Christianity have on slavery? 
(p. 270.) 

94. What is the difference between epic and lyric poetry? 
What was the most famous epic, and who was its author? (p. 
270.) Who was the poet laureate of Greece? (p. 270.) Who were 
the three great masters of Greek tragedy? (pp. 271-2.) Who 
was the great master of Greek comedy? (p. 272.) What is the 
difference between Herodotus and Thucydides as historians? 
(p. 272.) Why is Plutarch spoken of as “ immortal ”? (p. 273.) 
In what kinds of literature did the ancients excel? (p. 273.) 

95. Who were the Sophists? (p. 274.) Why was Socrates 
condemned to death? (p. 274.) What great philosophers were 
influenced by Socrates? (p. 275.) What was the difference 
between the Epicureans and the Stoics? (p. 276.) Why did not 
philosophy take the place of religion? (p. 226.) 

96. How was the style for Roman prose created? (p. 277.) 
Who were the great poets of the Romans? (p. 278.) Who were 
the great historians? (p. 278.) Of what people does Tacitus 
tell us? (p. 240.) 

97. What is the chief characteristic of Greek temples? (p. 
280.) In what respect did Greek temples differ from those of 
the Egyptians? (p. 280; cp. p. 28.) 

98. What are some of the differences between Greek, Roman, 
and modern art? (p. 281.) What did the Greek sculptors seek 
to portray in their statues and friezes? (p. 282.) 


25 


Western Europe 476-962 

99. What kinds of buildings did the Romans excel in con¬ 
structing? (p. 283.) What kinds of materials did they use? 
(p. 283.) Name different kinds of structures which the Romans 
built, (pp. 285-287.) What is the Roman arch? What is 
meant by mural painting? (p. 287.) Where have these paintings 
been preserved? (p. 287.) 

100. What was the most prominent place in Athens? (p. 288.) 
What famous temples were on the Acropolis? (p. 290.) What 
two famous men were responsible for the adornment of this 
greatest and most beautiful spot in the world? (p. 290.) Why 
is the Parthenon considered the world’s most beautiful building? 
(p. 291.) What are the subjects portrayed by the Parthenon 
friezes? *(p. 292.) 

101. Why was Rome called “the city of seven hills”? (p. 
293.) About what famous street were its public buildings and 
temples clustered? (p. 295.) Name some of its famous build¬ 
ings (pp. 294-5.) Why was the Forum famous in antiquity? 
(p. 296.) Why did the grandeur of Rome so impress the an¬ 
cients? (p. 296.) 

Summary. — From a study of Roman and Greek society we 
learn that the ancients possessed many of the refinements and 
conveniences of modern life. Notice that in Roman society 
woman enjoyed much of the freedom that she has today. 

CHAPTER XIII 

Western Europe during the Early Middle Ages, 
476-962 A.D. 

Objective. — To show how the Roman 
empire finally disintegrated and how from its 
ruins arose new states and nations. 

102. What work did Theodoric undertake? (p. 299.) What 
became of the Ostrogoths? (p. 300.) What emperor at Con- 


26 Early European History 

stantinople was contemporary with Theodoric at Rome? (p. 
300.) 

103. In what way did the Lombards treat Italy differently 
from other conquerors? (p. 302.) What was the effect of the 
Lombard conquest upon Italy? (p. 302.) When was Italy 
again united? (p. 302.) 

104. Who were the Franks? (p. 303.) What was the sig¬ 
nificance of the conversion of Clovis? (p. 304.) In what respect 
were the Franks different from other German peoples? (p. 305.) 

105. What three kings were crowned by the popes? (p. 306; 
p. 311; p. 317.) Did this give the popes ascendancy over kings? 
(p. 461.) What theory grew out of these coronations by the 
popes? (p. 688.) How did the estates of the Church become 
the property of the pope? (p. 306.) What double duty did this 
place upon the Church? (p. 458.) 

106. How was Charlemagne described? (p. 307.) What 
activities chiefly characterized his life? (p. 308.) What was 
the significance of the battle of Tours? (p. 306; see also p. 379.) 
What importance may be ascribed to Charlemagne’s victory over 
the Moors? (p. 309.) How did Charlemagne show his states¬ 
manship? (pp. 309-310.) 

107. What was the significance of the crowning of Charle¬ 
magne? (p. 312.) Why was his empire a new creation? (p. 312.) 

108. What was the importance of the treaties of Verdun and 
Mersen? (p. 314.) What two modern countries arose out of the 
division of Charlemagne’s empire? (p. 314.) What became of 
Lothair’s kingdom? (p. 314.) 

109. What was the significance of the stem-duchies? (p. 315.) 
What part of Germany provided in later times the Hohenzollern 
dynasty? (p. 315.) How was modern Austria to arise? (p. 316.) 
What was the origin of modern Hungary? (p. 316.) 

110. Why was the restoration of Charlemagne’s empire 
(p. 311) by Otto the Great a misfortune for Italy and Germany? 
(p. 318.) What was the theory underlying the Holy Roman 


Eastern Europe 395-1095 27 

Empire? (p. 319.) Did the theory work out satisfactorily in 
practice? (pp. 455-463.) 

111. What was the effect of the Anglo-Saxon conquest of 
Britain? (p. 319.) In what respect did the Anglo-Saxon con¬ 
quest of Britain differ from that of the German conquest of the 
Continent? (p. 322.) 

112. Who introduced Christianity into England? (p. 323.) 
How did the pope gain ascendancy in Britain? (p. 324.) 

113. How was the fusion of Germans and Latins accom¬ 
plished? (p. 325.) Give factors hindering and factors favoring 
fusion. How did Eastern Europe differ from Western-Europe 
during the Middle Ages? Which was the more highly civilized? 
(p. 327; cp. 335.) 

Summary. — During this age the foundations for the modern 
nations of Spain, France, England, and Germany were laid. 
The Holy Roman Empire, which was to keep Italy and Germany 
disunited until the ninteenth century, was organized. Christian¬ 
ity was introduced into Northwestern Europe. 

CHAPTER XIY 

Eastern Europe during the Early Middle Ages, 
395-1095 A.D. 

Objective. — To show how the Byzantine 
empire preserved Greek and Roman civiliza¬ 
tion. 

114. Why did the Byzantine Empire endure after Rome 
crumbled? (p. 328.) Did the Byzantine emperors admit that 
the Holy Roman Empire was successor to the Caesars? (p. 329.) 

115. Why was Justinian regarded as so great a ruler? (p. 329.) 
What great helpers did he have? (pp. 329-330.) By what two 
improvements is he best remembered? (p. 331.) 

116. Who were the chief foes of the Byzantine empire? (pp. 


28 Early European History 

332-3.) Which of these were the great destroyers of Eastern 
civilization? (p. 333.) 

117. Who were the foes of the Byzantine empire in Europe? 
(pp. 334-5.) What great work did the Byzantines do among 
the Slavs? (p. 335.) 

118. Why was the empire so strong? (p. 336.) For what arts 
was the Byzantine empire famous? (p. 336.) What influence 
did Byzantine art have on other peoples? (pp. 336-7.) What 
was the character of Byzantine scholarship? Was it original? 
(p. 337.) What service did it do for Europe? (p. 337.) 

119. Why is Constantinople a naturally strategic location? 
(p. 337.) Why was it so easily defensible? (p. 338.) What are 
some of the most celebrated monuments of the city? (p. 340.) 
How does Constantinople rank in medieval history? (p. 340.) 

Summary. — Constantinople served as a bulwark or buffer 
state to prevent Europe from becoming Mohammedan and fall¬ 
ing into decadence like modern Asia Minor and Mesopotamia. 
From Constantinople came the impetus for classical learning 
which was to result in the Renaissance, out of which movement 
grew modern civilization. 

CHAPTER XV 

The Christian Church in the East and in the West 
to 1054 A.D. 

Objective. — To show how the Roman 
church became supreme in the West. 

120. Why is the Roman church called “Catholic”? (p. 342.) 
How did the episcopacy develop? (p. 343.) Did early Chris¬ 
tianity have such an organization? (p. 232.) In what respect 
was the Church the most democratic institution of its day? 
(p. 343.) What were heresies? (p. 344.) Why was Christian 
worship so impressive? (p. 344.) How did we come to have 


The Christian Church 29 

Sunday? (p. 345.) What was the importance of festivals in 
medieval history? (p. 346.) 

121. In what two respects did Eastern Christianity differ 
widely from Western Christianity? (pp. 346-7.) 

122. What is the papacy? (p. 348.) How did the pope be¬ 
come supreme in the Western world? (pp. 348-9.) Why was 
the Roman church more ‘‘ orthodox ”? (p. 349.) On what theory 
did the Roman bishop base his claim for supremacy? (p. 350.) 

123. Who were the two great bishops of Rome in the later 
days of the Roman empire? (p. 350.) What great service did 
they render during the barbarian invasions? (pp. 350-1.) In 
addition to spiritual authority, what other power did they wield? 
(p. 351.) In what respects may the Roman church be looked 
upon as an international state in Western Europe? (p. 352; cp. 
pp. 444-6 and pp. 453-5.) 

124. How did monasticism arise? (p. 352.) Why did people 
wish to withdraw from the world and become hermits or monks? 
(p. 352.) In what respects did hermits differ from monks? 
(pp. 352-3.) What great monk organized the monastic system 
in Western Europe? (p. 354.) 

125. How was a monastic community conducted? (p. 356.) 
Why did monastic life prove attractive to many people during 
the Middle Ages? (p. 357.) How did the monks become the 
civilizers of Western Europe? (p. 358.) 

126. What great movement characterized Christianity at 
this period? (p. 358.) To what peoples did the monks carry 
Christianity? (p. 359.) What was the importance of their mis¬ 
sions? (p. 360.) 

127. Into what two communions are the east and west of 
Europe divided? (p. 361.) In what respect did the Roman 
pontiff fail to acknowledge the eastern (Byzantine) emperors? 
(p. 361.) In what respect was the patriarch of Constantinople 
different from the pope? (p. 362.) How did the great schism 
(break) in the Catholic church come? (p. 362.) 


30 Early European History 

128. Compare the Greek and Roman churches, (p. 363.) 
Into what region did the Greek church spread? (p. 364.) How 
is the Greek church organized at present? (p. 364). 

129. In what respects was the Roman church the heir of 
the Roman empire? (p. 365). What great service did the 
Roman church perform during the Middle Ages? (p. 365). 
What great rival religion was a menace to the supremacy of 
Christianity during the Middle Ages? (p; 365.) 

Summary. — The Church became the heir of the Roman em¬ 
pire and, owing to its assumption of both civil and religious func¬ 
tions, became a great international state. During the Middle 
Ages, its authority over the souls and bodies of men was supreme. 
A great schism rent the Church, making the Roman church 
supreme in Western Europe. 

CHAPTER XVI 

The Orient against the Occident; Rise and Spread of 
Islam, 622-1058 A.D. 

Objective. — To study the influence of the 
Orient on the Occident through the spread of 
Islam. 

130. Who were the Arabs? (p. 367.) How did they live? 
(p. 369.) How was the way prepared for Mohammed? (p. 369.) 

131. How did Mohammed come to regard himself as a 
prophet? (p. 371.) What is the Hegira? (p. 371.) How did 
Mohammed secure the loyalty of the Arabs? (p. 371.) Give 
an estimate of Mohammed’s character, (p. 372.) 

132. What is the Koran? (p. 372.) From what sources is its 
teaching derived? (p. 373.) What does Islam require of its 
adherents? (p. 374.) 

133. In what outstanding respect did Islam differ from 
Christianity? (p. 375; cp. p. 233.) How did Islam influence 


The Orient against the Occident 31 

Arabian political life? (p. 376.) Using the map opposite p. 376, 
study the extent of the Arabian conquests. How did the Arabs 
treat the conquered peoples? (p. 376.) 

134. How did the Arabs first secure a foothold in Europe? 
(p. 378.) What prevented the spread of Islam in Europe? 
(p. 379; cp: p.377.) 

135. Why did the caliphate begin to decline? (p. 380.) 
Which city of the East was the “glorious city” of the Abbasid 
caliphs? (p. 381.) By what famous stories is the city best 
remembered? (p. 381.) 

136. Which cities were the great centers of Arabian civiliza¬ 
tion? (p. 381.) Were the Arabs able to profit by their contacts 
with highly civilized peoples? (p. 381.) How did they influence 
European agriculture? (p. 382.) What new agricultural prod¬ 
ucts did they introduce? (p. 382.) How did they influence 
Europe by industry and trade? (p. 382.) By what famous 
special products are they remembered? (p. 382.) What would 
you see in every Moslem city? (p. 383.) Why are the Arabs 
famous for science and mathematics? (pp. 384-5.) How did 
the Arabs influence European architecture? (p. 386.) In what 
way was this introduced into America? (p. 386.) 

137. How does Islam fit the needs of barbarous peoples? 
(p. 387.) In what respects is it morally deficient as a religion? 
(p. 387.) 

Summary. — For a time, Islam and Christianity were in a 
life-and-death struggle. From the Arabs, agriculture, industry, 
trade, science, and mathematics profited. 


32 


Early European History 


CHAPTER XVII 

The Northmen and the Normans to 1066 A.D. 

Objective. — To indicate the contribu¬ 
tions made by another Teutonic people — 
the Northmen — to European history and 
civilization. 

138. From what countries did the Northmen come? (p. 389.) 
Why did they naturally turn to the sea? (p. 390.) 

139. Why do we regard the Northmen as the boldest sailors 
of antiquity? (p. 391.) How do the sagas reveal the life and 
character of the Northmen? (pp. 392-3.) 

140. Who were the chief divinities of the Northmen? (p. 
394.) What is meant by the “Twilight of the Gods”? (p. 395.) 
How did the heathen Northmen become Christianized? (p. 
396.) 

141. Why did the Northmen raid the western coast of Europe? 
(p. 397.) What discoveries did they make in America? (p. 399.) 
Why do these discoveries seem so wonderful? What was the 
outcome of these discoveries? (p. 399.) 

142. What was the Scandinavian influence on Russia? (p. 
400.) How did Christianity gain a foothold in Russia? (p. 401.) 
What was the importance of the conversion of the Russians to 
Christianity? (p. 401.) 

143. In what part of France did the Northmen settle? (p. 
402.) How did they influence the history of that country? 
(p. 403.) 

144. In what part of England was the Danelaw? (p. 405.) 
How did Alfred the Great render great service to his country? 
(p. 404.) Estimate Alfred’s work and character, (pp. 406-7.) 

145. If succession to the English throne failed, how was a 
new king legally elected? (p. 407.) What influence did this 
ancient right have on later times? (p. 721.) Who was William 


Feudalism 33 

the Conqueror? (p. 407.) How did he conquer England? (p. 
408.) Describe his personality, (p. 410.) 

146. How did the Norman conquest influence the English 
people and the English language? (pp. 410-1.) What element of 
the English population did the Normans form? (p. 411.) What 
qualities did they give to the English people? (p. 412.) 

147. What was the influence of the Northmen on the culture 
of southern Italy and Sicily? (p. 413.) 

148. What was the influence of the Northmen on European 
history? (pp. 413-4.) 

Summary. — The Northmen helped to make boldness and 
courage and military conquest marked characteristics of Euro¬ 
pean peoples. 


CHAPTER XVIII 
Feudalism 

Objective. — To explain the social life of 
Western Europe under feudalism. 

149. Why are the earlier Middle Ages sometimes called the 
“Dark Ages”? (p. 415.) Why did royal authority decline and 
the power of the nobles increase? (p. 415.) Over what coun¬ 
tries did feudalism extend? (p. 416.) 

150. Explain the feudal system of land tenure? (p. 417.) 
How were the estates kept intact from one generation to another? 
(p. 417.) What were the duties of a vassal? (p. 418.) What is 
meant by homage? (p. 418.) How did feudalism render service 
to medieval society? (p. 419.) 

151. What were the peculiarities of feudal justice? (p. 419.) 
From whom were oaths, ordeals, and duels inherited? (p. 421.) 
Did ordeals serve any good purpose? (p. 420.) To whom did 
feudal justice in theory appeal? (p. 420.) 

152. What use did the feudal army serve? (p. 422.) How 


34 Early European History 

were the knights equipped for fighting? (p. 422.) What were 
some of the results of private warfare? (p. 423.) 

153. What was a castle and what purpose did it serve? (pp. 
424-5.) Imagine yourself entering a castle. What would you 
see as you enter? (p. 427.) How did the occupants of a castle 
pass their time? (p. 428.) 

154. How did a youth become a knight? (p. 428.) Was 
chivalry all that it is generally supposed to be? What were its 
defects? (pp. 429-431.) How did chivalry influence the life of 
Europe in later times? (p. 431.) 

155. Why is feudalism associated chiefly with country life? 
(p. 431.) How was the arable land of a manor divided for 
cultivation? (p. 433.) Why was not agriculture progressive? 
(p. 433.) What was the use of the common? (p. 434.) 

156. Did people in Europe live on their farms as we do? 
Describe the ways in which their village life differed from ours, 
(p. 434.) Why did the peasant have a hard lot? (p. 434.) 
What pleasures served to lighten his toil? (p. 435.) 

157. Note that serfdom and feudalism are not the same 
systems. How were freemen distinguished from serfs? (p. 436.) 
What were the chief obligations of a serf? (p. 437.) What is the 
difference between a serf and a slave? (p. 436.) 

158. State the main factors which caused the decline of 
feudalism, (p. 437.) 

Summary. — This chapter gives a picture which will be help¬ 
ful later as a basis of contrast with the modern world. 


The Papacy and the Empire 


35 


CHAPTER XIX 

The Papacy and the Holy Empire, 962-1273 A.D. 

Objective. — To show how the Church 
became an international state in Christendom 
and presented the paradox of being an ab¬ 
solute monarchy with a democratic ideal. 

159. Over what countries did the Church exercise her au¬ 
thority? (p. 439.) In how many ways did the Church exercise 
the powers of an international state? (p. 440.) What two tasks 
did the Church seek to perform? (p. 440.) 

160. How did the Church exercise her authority through her 
religious offices? (p. 440.) What was the function of the sacra¬ 
mental system? (p. 440.) Name the seven sacraments and 
what they were for. (pp. 441-2.) Why did the Church exalt 
the worship of the Virgin Mary? (p. 443.) What is meant by 
the 11 other worldliness” of the Church? 

161. In what respects were the Church courts better than 
the feudal courts? (p. 444.) Who could receive “ benefit of 
clergy”? (p. 444.) By what two means did the Church com¬ 
mand obedience, even of kings? (p. 445.) Can you name two 
instances where kings were made to obey the orders of the popes? 
(p. 445.) 

162. In what respects did the regular and the secular clergy 
differ? (p. 446.) How did the parish priest minister to his 
parishioners? (p. 447.) What two tasks did the higher clergy 
serve? (p. 448.) 

163. Why did monasticism decline? (p. 448.) How was 
monasticism revived? (p. 449.) What were the services of the 
Cistercian monks? (p. 449.) Who was Bernard of Clairvaux? 
(p. 450.) 

164. In what respects did the friars differ from the monks? 
(p. 450.) Who was St. Francis of Assisi? (p. 451.) In what 


36 


Early European History 

respects did the Franciscans and the Dominicans differ? (p. 452.) 
What is meant by “mendicants”? (p. 452.) Of what service 
were the friars to the papacy? (p. 453.) 

165. In what ways was the pope exalted during the Middle 
Ages? (p. 453.) What power was bestowed upon the “college” of 
cardinals? (p.454.) How was the papal court supported? (p.454.) 

166. Why did the theory of the two spheres between emperor 
and pope fail to work? (pp. 455-6.) How did the Church be¬ 
come feudalized? (p. 457.) Over what right did the struggle 
between pope and emperor become a conflict? (p. 457.) De¬ 
scribe the dramatic scene of Henry IV before Pope Gregory VII 
(Hildebrand) at Canossa. (p. 459.) 

167. How did the popes humble Frederick Barbarossa? 
(p. 461.) How did Innocent III deal with Philip, king of 
France? (p. 461.) How did Innocent III deal with King John 
of England? (p. 461.) How did the contest of Frederick II with 
Innocent III affect the Holy Roman Empire? (p. 462.) How 
did the Hapsburg dynasty arise in Austria? (p. 462; note the 
work of the pope.) What were the effects of the contests be¬ 
tween kings and popes? (p. 462.) Was this a good thing for 
Italy and Germany? Why? (p. 462.) 

168. In what ways did the Church seek to alleviate social ills? 
(p. 464.) In what ways did the Church fail to do so? (p. 464.) 
In what way was the Church truly democratic? (p. 464.) Why 
did the Church attract to itself the brightest and most vigorous 
minds of the age? (p. 464.) What other social tasks did the 
monks perform besides strictly religious duties? (p. 464.) 

Summary. — The Church is the most remarkable institution 
that has ever existed. Without armies, navies, or even formal 
political authority, it contested for political supremacy with the 
mighty kings of the earth and won. It preserved the best of 
antiquity, attracted the finest minds of the Middle Ages, and 
for centuries exercised and maintained power over both bodies 
and souls of men. 


The Occident against the Orient 37 


CHAPTER XX 

The Occident against the Orient: the Crusades, 
1095-1291 A.D. 

Objective. — To show how the crusading 
movement represents the final chapter in the 
struggle between the Orient and Occident for 
supremacy; and the effect of the movement 
upon modern times. 

169. Among what other struggles between Orient and Occi¬ 
dent do the Crusades belong? (p. 466.) In what way did the 
struggle assume a new character in the Crusades? (p. 467.) 
Why were pilgrimages so popular in the Middle Ages? (p. 467; 
cp. p. 441.) Did other than religious motives appeal to the 
crusaders? How did these motives operate to enlist volunteers? 
(p. 468.) Note that the crusaders formed strictly volunteer 
armies. 

170. What was the occasion of the First Crusade? (p. 468.) 
To whom did the Greek emperor appeal? Why? (p. 469.) 
Why did Pope Urban’s appeal not fall on deaf ears? (p. 469.) 
How was the movement popularized with the common people? 
(p. 470; cp. p. 474.) What were the results of the First Cru¬ 
sade? (p. 471 f.) 

171. Why was it a mistake to introduce feudalism into Pales¬ 
tine? (p. 472; cp. p. 479.) How do you explain the ability of 
the crusaders to maintain themselves in Palestine? (pp. 472-3.) 

172. To what condition was the early Christian success due? 
(p. 474.) What great leader arose to defend the Moslem cause? 
(p. 474.) What three great kings did he defeat in the Third 
Crusade? (p. 475.) Why was Richard I called “the Lion- 
hearted”? (p. 476.) 

173. Under what great pope was the Fourth Crusade under¬ 
taken? (p. 476.) Why was this less a spiritual than a political 


38 


Early European History 

movement? (p. 477.) Why did the Venetians persuade the 
crusaders to turn aside from their main object? (p. 477.) What 
spirit was shown in the sack of Constantinople? (p. 477.) What 
were the disastrous consequences of the sack of Constantinople? 
(p. 478.) Why was the Children’s Crusade a wretched thing? 
(p. 478.) 

174. What were the net results of the Crusades in the con¬ 
quest of the Holy Land? (p. 479.) Give the reasons why the 
Crusades failed, (p. 479.) What were the effects of the Cru¬ 
sades upon Europe? (pp. 480-1.) 

Summary. — The Crusades broke down feudalistic provin¬ 
cialism, and started a shifting of population which resulted in 
the diffusion of culture as in the age of Alexander the Great. 
The Crusades contributed to the increase of industry and com¬ 
merce, the rise of Humanism (Renaissance), later geographi¬ 
cal discoveries and colonial expansion, and weakened the hold 
of the Church on the masses, which led to the Reformation. 
Such great movements ushered in the modern world. The 
teacher should trace these movements continuously out of 
the Crusades. The Crusades form the most singular chapter 
in history. 


CHAPTER XXI 

The Mongols and the Ottoman Turks to 1453 A.D. 

Objective. — To show how Eastern and 
Southeastern Europe and Asia Minor, which 
during the medieval period had been progres¬ 
sive, became decadent. 

175. What was the home land of the Mongols? (p. 483.) In 
what respects were the Mongol invaders different from previous 
invaders? (p. 484; cp. p. 413.) Why were they regarded as a 
dread scourge? (p. 484; cp. p. 487.) 


Nations during the Later Middle Ages 39 

176. In what countries were the effects of the Mongol inroads 
chiefly felt? (p. 485.) Who were the Mongol leaders ? (p. 487.) 

177. What great European traveler visited the Mongol em¬ 
peror of China? (p. 488.) What activities were conducted be¬ 
tween East and West at that time? (p. 488.) 

178. What progress did the Mongols make in Europe? 
(p. 489.) Which country was most immediately affected? 
(p. 490.) What were the effects of Mongol rule in Russia? 
(p. 490.) What great Russian freed his land from Mongol 
rule? (p. 490.) 

179. Against what people were the Ottoman Turks imme¬ 
diately successful? (p. 491.) Why were the Janizaries such 
effective soldiers? (p. 491 f.) Why was the fall of Constanti¬ 
nople such a grave disaster? (p. 493.) 

180. Why was Turkish rule different from that of other con¬ 
quering peoples? (p. 493.) What has been the effect of Turkish 
rule upon Southeastern Europe? (p. 495.) 

Summary. — Some invasions bring renewed vitality to old 
civilizations, like those of the Teutons and the Normans in 
Western Europe; but other invasions bring blight and decay, 
like those of the Mongols and Turks. 

CHAPTER XXII 

European Nations during the Later Middle Ages 

Objective. — To show how various na¬ 
tional states arose in Europe and why certain 
countries did not become national states until 
a later date. 

181. What forms of government preceded the present na¬ 
tional states of Europe? (p. 496.) What sort of system did the 
new monarchies in England, Spain, and France create? Upon 
what powers did they depend? (pp. 496-7.) Why did England 


40 Early European History 

become a national state before the countries on the Continent? 
(p. 497.) 

182. Why were the English people free to work out their own 
system of government? (p. 497.) How did William the Con¬ 
queror strongly centralize the government? (p. 498.) How 
did he find out what were the resources of England? (p. 499.) 

183. What three things in which Englishmen take pride began 
in the reign of Henry II? (p. 500.) Why was the king’s court 
superior to the feudal court? (p. 500.) In what respects was 
trial by petty jury an improvement? (p. 500.) What was the 
use of the grand jury? (p. 502.) How did the English Common 
Law arise? (p. 502.) 

184. Why was Magna Carta so great a step forward in English 
constitutional history? (p. 504.) What were some of its provi¬ 
sions? (p. 505.) 

185. How did the British parliament originate? (p. 506.) 
How did the English develop a new governmental system? 
(p. 506; cp. p. 106 and p. 155.) How did the British parliament 
more truly represent the nation? (p. 507.) How did parliament 
serve as a check on the absolutism of the king? (p. 507.) 

186. How was Wales united with England? (p. 508.) Why 
was Scotland so long separated? (p. 509.) When were Scotland 
and England finally united? (p. 510.) Why was Ireland unable 
to secure such union? (p. 511.) 

187. Why does French history form a connecting link between 
ancient and modern history? (pp. 511-2.) What dynasty began 
the nationalization of France? (p. 512.) How was England 
excluded from her dominions in France? (p. 514.) In what 
respects did St. Louis and Philip IV strengthen their kingdoms? 
(p. 514.) 

188. What was the pretext for the Hundred Years’ War be¬ 
tween France and England? (p. 515.) Why were the English 
superior in arms? (p. 516.) What was the effect of the new 
weapons upon feudalism? (p. 516.) Tell the story of Joan of 


Cities during the Later Middle Ages 41 

Arc. Why may she be regarded as one of the greatest women in 
history? (p. 518.) What was the effect of the War of the Roses 
upon England? (p. 518.) 

189. How did various peoples affect the civilization of Spain? 
(p. 519.) How was Spain recovered from the Moors? (p. 520.) 
How did Spain become unified? (p. 520.) Why do Ferdinand 
and Isabella deserve a leading place among the sovereigns of 
Europe? (p. 522.) 

190. How did the Hapsburgs come to rule Austria? (p. 522.) 
Tell the story of the Swiss struggle for freedom? (pp. 523-4.) 
In what respects is the Swiss nation different from any other 
European nation? (p. 525.) 

191. How did Germany begin to expand her territory? (p. 
525.) How did the state of Prussia arise? (p. 526.) In what 
respects did Germany remain weak? (p. 526.) In what way 
did Germany and Italy find compensation for their political 
backwardness? (p. 527.) 

Summary. — France, England, Spain, and Portugal first be¬ 
came nations and through national unity were able to become 
the first nations of Europe in the sixteenth and seventeenth 
centuries. Germany and Italy remained disunited, so that they 
did not become great powers until the nineteenth century. 

CHAPTER XXIII 

European Cities during the Later Middle Ages 

Objective. — To gain a knowledge of 
economic and social life in medieval cities. 

192. How did the various medieval cities originate? (pp. 
529-530.) Why were the cities called “free”? (p. 531.) How 
did they obtain their freedom? (p. 530.) Who composed the 
third estate, or bourgeoisie? (p. 531.) Why did the third estate 
exert an increasing influence on European affairs? (p. 531.) 


42 


Early European History 

193. In what ways did a medieval city from without appear 
unlike a modern city? (p. 532.) Why did a medieval city 
within appear mean and sordid? (pp. 532-3.) In what ways 
did the city regulate the private life of its citizens? (p. 533.) 
Which were the most imposing buildings in a city? (pp. 533-4.) 

194. How did the merchant guilds regulate trade? (p. 534.) 
In what respects did the craft guilds differ from the merchant 
guilds? (p. 535.) In what respects did the craft guilds differ 
from modern labor unions? (p. 536.) How did one become 
a member of a craft guild? (p. 536.) What were the non¬ 
economic activities of the craft guilds? (p. 536.) Why did 
the craft guilds eventually break up and disappear? (p. 537.) 

195. Why did towns have markets and fairs? (p. 537.) How 
did traders determine a “just price” for their goods? (p. 537.) 
How did the fairs help different countries? (p. 539.) Why did 
commerce decline in the Middle Ages? (p. 539.) To what great 
movement was the revival of commerce due?' (p. 539). Trace 
the three main trade routes between the Orient and the Occident, 
(p. 540.) 

196. Why was money scarce during the medieval period? 
(p. 541.) How did the world secure sufficient money in the 
early modern period? (p. 541.) How was medieval currency 
debased? (pp. 541-2.) Why were the Jews regarded as usurers? 
(p. 542.) How did the great banking companies of Italy arise? 
(p. 542.) 

197. Why were the Italian cities of the later Middle Ages 
especially favored? (p. 543.) Tell what each of these cities was 
specially noted for. (pp. 544-6.) In what respect did Venice 
resemble the Athenian empire? (pp. 546-7.) 

198. How did the German cities become important? (p. 548.) 
What was the function of the Hanseatic League? (p. 548.) 
Which of the German cities are still free? (p. 549.) 

199. To what did the cities of Flanders owe their prosperity? 
(p. 550.) Which of these cities were especially prosperous? 


Medieval Civilization 


43 


(p. 551.) Why did the Flemish cities lose their freedom? (p. 
552.) What was the influence of the cities on European civiliza¬ 
tion? (p. 552.) 

Summary. — Out of cities have always come the great vitaliz¬ 
ing movements of civilization, such as the Golden Age of Athens 
and the Renaissance of the Italian cities. In blocking the medie¬ 
val trade routes, the Turks stimulated the geographical expedi¬ 
tions which later led to the sea route to India around Africa and 
the discovery of America. 

CHAPTER XXIV 
Medieval Civilization 

Objective. — To show how medieval life 
differs from the life of to-day. 

200. To what uses was Latin put in medieval times? (p. 554.) 
What languages were derived from the Latin? (p. 555.) In 
what parts of Europe did the Teutonic languages flourish? 
(p. 556.) How was the English language formed? (p. 556.) 
Why were the changes in English grammar so exceedingly small 
after 1485? (p. 557; cp. 596.) Why is English well fitted to 
become a world language? (p. 557.) 

201. How did lyric poetry arise? (p. 558.) How did epic 
poetry arise? (p. 559.) Name five of the popular epics of the 
Middle Ages? (pp. 559-561.) 

202. What two types of architecture were found in Western 
Europe? (p. 562.) In what respects did the Gothic style differ 
from the Romanesque style? (p. 563.) Why did the cathedrals 
express the religious spirit of the Middle Ages? (p. 565.) 

203. How were common schools conducted during the Middle 
Ages? (p. 566.) How did universities arise during the Middle 
Ages? (p. 566.) How did great teachers influence the rise of 
medieval universities? (p. 567.) Who was Abelard? (p. 567.) 


44 


Early European History 

How were the universities conducted? (p. 568.) Why were there 
frequent conflicts between “town and gown”? (p. 569.) How 
did the colleges arise? In what respects did they differ from our 
colleges? (pp. 569-570.) What universities became famous 
for theology? medicine? law? (p. 570.) 

204. What is meant by scholasticism? (p. 570.) Why were 
Abelard’s opinions condemned? (p. 571.) How did the study 
of Aristotle affect scholasticism? (p. 571.) What did Thomas 
Aquinas do? (p. 572.) Explain the scholastic method, (p. 572.) 

205. What is the significance of Roger Bacon’s work in this 
period? (p. 573.) How did the use of gunpowder affect medieval 
Europe? (p. 574.) Why was science at this period a mixture of 
knowledge and popular superstition? (pp. 574-5.) 

206. From a reading of this chapter, explain the widespread 
superstitions of this age. Why have superstitions declined in 
modern times? (p. 574; cp. p. 579.) Why were witches es¬ 
pecially dreaded? (pp. 578-9.) 

207. Would the indoor and outdoor sports of the Middle 
Ages seem especially amusing to us to-day? Why? (pp. 579- 
581.) What amusements were the forerunners of the modern 
drama? (pp. 582-584.) 

208. What comforts of life to which we are daily accustomed 
were lacking during the Middle Ages? (pp. 584-5.) In what 
respects did medieval dress shock the people of that day? (p. 
585.) How did the food and table manners differ from ours? 
(p. 587.) By whom was the use of intoxicating liquors intro¬ 
duced into Europe? (p. 587.) Looking back over these chap¬ 
ters, what movements tended to “speed up” the intellectual life 
of Europe during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries? (p. 588.) 

Summary. — The later Middle Ages were distinguished for 
much progress in the fine arts, education, and learning. Never¬ 
theless, they were in many ways a rude and backward period, 
when many conveniences of life, with which we are familiar, 
were unknown. 


The Renaissance 


45 


CHAPTER XXY 

The Renaissance 

Objective. — To show how the intellectual 
awakening of the fourteenth and fifteenth 
centuries laid the foundations of the modern 
era. 

209. What is meant by the Renaissance? (p. 589.)' What 
movements are usually included in it? (p. 589.) What coun¬ 
tries in Europe were affected by the Renaissance? (p. 589.) 
Where did the Renaissance originate? Why? (p. 590.) 

210. Why is Dante’s Divine Comedy an interpretation of the 
spirit of the Middle Ages? (pp. 591-2.) How did Petrarch 
revive interest in the classics? (p. 592.) How did Boccaccio 
and Chaucer affect the life of their times? (p. 593.) What lit¬ 
erary form did Boccaccio originate? (p. 493.) In what respect 
does humanism differ from scholasticism? (p. 593; cp. p. 572.) 

211. Why was printing so important to the spread of the 
Renaissance? (p. 596.) Why is it equally important, if not 
more important, to-day? (p. 597.) 

Note. — Study Greek art, plates opposite pp. 76 and 78; 
Italian art, plate opposite p. 600; Egyptian art, p. 63; Assyrian 
art, p. 60; medieval art, p. 432 and p. 459. Note how crude, 
stiff, and formal Egyptian, Assyrian, and medieval arts are, and 
how free Greek and Italian arts are. Note that both Greek and 
Italian themes are religious; but Greek art is sculpture and 
Italian art is painting, which has a freer form. This free¬ 
dom of Italian art is the beginning of freedom in literature, 
science, religion, and government. The movement for freedom 
began in art. 

212. How did Renaissance architecture express itself? (p. 
597.) Why did Italian painters abandon the Byzantine style? 
(p. 598.) In what styles of painting did the Renaissance paint- 


46 


Early European History 

ers excel? (p. 599.) Name some of the most famous paintings 
of the “old masters.” (p. 599.) In what respects did the art of 
music improve during this age? (p. 599.) 

213 . How did printing help the intellectual awakening? 
(p. 600.) How did Erasmus help this movement? (pp. 600-1.) 
How did the humanistic movement affect religion? (p. 601.) 
To what countries did the humanistic movement spread? 

(p. 601.) 

214 . Why was printing bound to popularize the literary use of 
the vernacular? (p. 602.) What prominent authors of this 
period appealed to the wider public by writing in the vernacu¬ 
lar? (pp. 602-4.) How did the vernacular literatures differ 
from the classical literatures? (p. 602 and p. 605.) 

215 . How did humanism affect education? (p. 606.) What is 
meant by a classical education? (p. 606.) (Remember that all 
important books in this period were written in Latin, the in¬ 
ternational language of learning.) Give a brief discussion of 
classicism in education (pp. 606-7). How are the defects of 
purely classical education remedied in modern education? 
(p. 606; cp. p. 609 and p. 641 f.) 

216 . Why does the name of Copernicus stand as a landmark 
in the history of thought? (pp. 607-8.) How did Galileo and 
Kepler extend the Copernican system? (p. 608.) Why does the 
scientific method add to our knowledge, whereas scholasticism 
did not? (p. 609; cp. p. 571.) 

217 . Why does the decline of serfdom show a movement for 
freedom as a ground swell (from the lower strata of society)? 
(p. 610.) What events at this time bear out this last point? 
(p. 611.) Were the peasants better off after the extinction of 
serfdom? (p. 612.) 

Summary. — In the Renaissance, we find a renewed interest 
in this life instead of other worldliness. People became inter¬ 
ested in classical culture, — the beginning of classicism in 
modern education. Through Boccaccio, Chaucer, other authors, 


Geographical Discovery and Colonization 47 

and the translations of the Bible, came a renewed interest in the 
vernacular, and with this, a fresh interest in literature. The 
spread of education and the invention of printing greatly in¬ 
creased the reading public for books published in the vernacular. 
Art became freed from the ancient formalism, and out of this 
movement grew freedom in all lines of human thought and 
action. Through science came a new intellectual outlook on 
life, and by the invention of gunpowder, the breakdown of 
provincialism (feudalism). Out of the quickened intellectual 
life of the Renaissance grew the modern world. 

CHAPTER XXVI 

Geographical Discovery and Colonization 

Objective. — To show how the Renais¬ 
sance spirit led to discovery and colonization, 
and to economic and religious upheavals. 

218 . In what respects do maps and stories show the ignorance 
of geography during the Middle Ages? (pp. 614-6). What is 
the significance of the journey of the Polos to far Cathay? 

(pp. 616-8.) 

219 . How did science come to the aid of explorers during the 
Renaissance? (pp. 618-9.) What motives did the explorers 
have for wishing to visit distant parts of the earth? (p. 619.) 

220 . What was the first successful trade route to India? Who 
found it? (pp. 620-1.) What country profited from it? (p. 621.) 
What was the significance of the new route? (p. 622.) How did 
it affect the cities of Italy? (p. 622.) 

221. What was the result of the Portuguese monopoly of the 
trade of the Orient? (pp. 622-3.) Why did the Portuguese 
colonial empire collapse? (p. 623.) Have Europeans ever suc¬ 
ceeded in “ Westernizing ” Asia? (p. 623.) 

222 . Was the theory of Columbus anything new? (p. 624.) 


48 


Early European History 

Can you account for the myth of the lost Atlantis? (p. 624.) 
Why did Columbus have such a hard time converting people to 
his theory? (p. 627.) Why did Isabella finally agree to finance 
his project by selling her crown jewels? (pp. 615-6.) Why did 
Columbus fail? (map opposite p. 628.) How was the theory of 
Columbus finally proved? (pp. 629-630.) What division of the 
new discoveries did the pope try to make? (p. 628.) Why was 
this division impossible to maintain? (p. 629.) 

223 . To what state of culture had the native Americans 
arrived? (p. 631.) What Indians did most to develop a civilized 
life? (pp. 631-32.) 

224 . What were the motives of the Spaniards in coming to 
America? (p. 633.) How did they accomplish their designs? 
(p. 634.) What fable led to explorations in North America? 
(p. 635.) 

225 . What was the effect of Spanish rule in America? (p. 635.) 
How did the Spaniards get along with the Indians? (p. 636.) 
Why was their colonial policy unwise? (p. 637.) 

226 . How did the English and French become explorers? 
(p. 638.) What were they seeking? (p. 639.) Why did they 
fail as explorers? Having failed, what did the English “sea- 
dogs” do? (p. 639.) 

227 . In what ways was European life changed by the dis¬ 
covery and exploration of America? Explain, (p. 640.) What 
were the effects of these discoveries? Explain, (pp. 641-2.) 

Summary. — The discovery of the sea route to India changed 
the center of the world’s commerce from the Mediterranean 
to the Atlantic. Ancient and medieval civilization is often called 
the Mediterranean civilization. Modern civilization is referred 
to as the Atlantic civilization. The discovery of America gave a 
New Europe on this side of the Atlantic, and with the Crusades, 
broke down completely the provincialism of Europe. Those 
nations which had attained national unity were the nations to 
build up colonial empires in the New World. 


The Reformation 


49 


CHAPTER XXVII 

The Reformation and the Religious Wars, 
1517-1648 A.D. 

Objective. — To show how the Reforma¬ 
tion arose and how it produced political, 
social, and religious changes in the nations 
of Western Europe. 

228 . Why did the Papacy fall into disrepute? (pp. 645-7; 
cp. pp. 481, 572, 594, 609.) How did the conflict between 
Church and State arise? (p. 643.) Wherein were the popes at 
first successful? (pp. 458-462.) Why were the later popes un¬ 
successful? (pp. 644^5.) Who were the heretics? (p. 647.) 

229 . What was the medieval attitude against heresy? (pp. 
647-8.) Why were the Albigenses and Waldenses crushed? 
(p. 648.) In what respects were Wycliffe and Huss ahead of their 
times? (p. 650.) Note that when Luther and Calvin appeared, 
Western Europe was ripe for reform. 

230 . From the account of Luther’s early life, bring out the 
points in his character which make him a typical reformer? 
(p. 651.) Why did Luther post his theses on the church door? 
(p. 652.) How did Luther find himself linked with Wycliffe 
and Huss? (pp. 652-3.) Describe Luther’s appearance before 
the Diet of Worms? (p. 653.) What was the effect of his trans¬ 
lation of the Bible into German? (p. 653.) Note. — Luther 
sought to substitute an infallible book (Bible) for an infallible 
authority (Papacy); and faith as the basis of saving the soul 
instead of works (sacraments.) (p. 663.) 

231 . Why was Charles V prevented from dealing with the 
Lutheran Reformation until too late? (p. 654.) Why did 
Luther’s doctrines appeal to the people? (p. 655.) Why did 
his teachings appeal to the princes? (p. 655.) How did the 
Lutherans come to be called Protestants? (p. 655.) What 


50 Early European History 

were the terms of the Peace of Augsburg? Learn the date, 
(p. 656.) 

232 . How did Calvin come to succeed Zwingli in Geneva? (p. 
656.) What was the effect of Calvin’s authority in Geneva? Can 
you see any relation between it and later Puritanism? (p. 657.) 
How is Calvin’s teaching related to our history? (p. 657.) 

233 . In what ways did Henry VIII of England at first show 
his loyalty to the pope? (p. 658.) Why and how did he ac¬ 
complish the separation of the Anglican church? (pp. 659-660.) 
Under what sovereign was Anglicanism finally triumphant? 

(p. 661 .) 

234 . Where did Protestantism exist during the sixteenth cen¬ 
tury? (p. 662.) What were the common teachings of the 
various Protestant sects? (p. 663.) In what respects were the 
Lutheran and Anglican churches alike? (p. 664.) Into what 
two great sects did the Calvinists divide? (p. 664.) What was 
the effect of the Reformation upon European morals? (p. 664.) 

235 . What was the effect of the Reformation upon the Roman 
church? (p. 665.) How did the Jesuit order help in effecting 
the Catholic Counter Reformation? (p. 666.) What was the 
work of the Council of Trent? (p. 667.) 

236. What were the two ideals of Philip II of Spain? (p. 669.) 
What was the significance of the battle of Lepanto? (p. 669.) 
Trace the extent of the Spanish dominions under Philip, (pp. 
669-670.) Why was his endeavor to dominate Europe a failure? 
(p. 670.) 

237 . Account for the rise of the Dutch to power and impor¬ 
tance. (p. 671.) Why did the Dutch revolt against Philip II? 
(p. 672.) How did the Dutch become a united people? (p. 673.) 
Give a brief account of how the Dutch won their freedom? 
(p. 674.) What political ideas do we owe to the Dutch? (p. 674.) 

238 . From a study of Elizabeth’s character, explain why she 
was such a success as a ruler, (pp. 674-5.) Why did Ireland 
remain Catholic? (p. 676.) Was Elizabeth in the right in her 


Absolutism in France and England 51 

contest with Philip II? (pp. 677-8.) What was the outcome 
of England’s struggle with Spain? (p. 679.) 

239. Who were the Huguenots? (p. 679.) Why was the 
St. Bartholomew’s massacre a blunder? (pp. 680-1.) What was 
the effect of the Edict of Nantes? (p. 681.) 

240. What were the causes of the Thirty Years’ War? (pp. 
682-3.) How did Gustavus Adolphus help the Protestant 
cause? (p. 684.) Why did France, a Catholic power, enter the 
war on the side of the Protestants? (p. 685.) What was the 
effect of the Peace of Westphalia (note the date) upon religious 
liberty? (p. 685.) How did the Thirty Years’ War affect Ger¬ 
many? (pp. 685-6.) Why did international law arise at this 
time? (p. 686.) Why does this period vindicate the principle of 
nationalism? (p. 686.) 

Summary. — The Reformation is a continuation of the Re¬ 
naissance — a religious renaissance. It was also a political 
and social reformation. In England, it led to the Elizabethan 
period, which made England supreme on the seas. In the 
Netherlands, it gave Holland a huge colonial empire, and made 
her the most prosperous nation in Europe during the seven¬ 
teenth century. The Peace of Westphalia left Germany more 
divided than ever, and made France the foremost nation in 
Europe. The period of the Thirty Years’ War saw the rise of 
international law. 

CHAPTER XXVIII 

Absolutism in France and England, 1603-1715 A.D. 

Objective. — To show how absolutism and 
the divine right of kings triumphed on the 
Continent but failed in England. 

241. Why was absolutism revived during the seventeenth 
century? (p. 688.) On what premises was the theory of the 
divine right of kings based? (pp. 688-9.) 


52 


Early European History 

242. How did Cardinal Richelieu establish the absolutism of 
the Bourbon dynasty in France? (p. 690.) How did Mazarin 
complete the work of Richelieu? (p. 691.) What factors in the 
character of Louis XIV made him the foremost example of 
absolutism in the seventeenth century? (pp. 692-4.) 

243. What two economic measures did Colbert introduce into 
France? (pp. 694-5.) What has been the influence of these 
policies on later history? (pp. 694-5.) How did he develop the 
colonial empire of France? (p. 695.) What was the effect of the 
revocation of the Edict of Nantes? (p. 696.) Give an account 
of the glories of France under Louis XIV. (pp. 696-7.) 

244. What new diplomatic principle was introduced into 
European international politics by the union against the ambi¬ 
tious designs of Louis XIV? (p. 698.) Which nations were the 
great antagonists of Louis XIV in his various wars? (pp. 700-1.) 
From the map (p. 699), note the territorial gains of France 
during the seventeenth century. In what later wars has Alsace- 
Lorraine been the cause of bloody struggles between France and 
Germany? What was to be the later destiny of the house of 
Savoy? (p. 702.) How did Louis XIV regard his various wars? 
(p. 702.) 

245. Why were the Stuarts less successful in their policies of 
absolutism than the Tudors? (pp. 703-4.) Who were the 
Puritans? (p. 704.) Explain the constitutional significance of 
the Petition of Right? (p. 706.) In what ways did Charles I 
arouse the animosity of the English people? (p. 708.) 

246. Why were the king’s supporters called “Cavaliers” and 
the parliamentarians called “Roundheads”? (p. 711.) Give an 
estimate of Cromwell and his place in history, (pp. 711-2.) 
Why did Cromwell favor the Independents? (p. 712.) 

247. Was England in a true sense a republic under Cromwell? 
(p. 714.) Why is the Instrument of Government regarded as 
the first written constitution? (p. 717.) Why was the Common¬ 
wealth a failure? (p. 717.) 


Absolutism in France and England 53 

248. What was the moral effect of Charles II upon England? 
(p. 718.) Why was the Habeas Corpus Act so important? 
(p. 719.) How did political parties arise in England? (p. 719.) 
In what ways is the Bill of Rights related to earlier Petition of 
Right? (p. 720.) What new principle of government was intro¬ 
duced by Parliament at the accession of William and Mary? 
(pp. 720-1.) How did the Dissenters win religious liberty? 
(p. 721.) What was the effect of the “Glorious Revolution” 
upon English history? (p. 721.) 

249. What were the social and economic conditions in Eng¬ 
land during the seventeenth century? (pp. 721-3.) Note that 
the great changes in social and economic conditions began in 
England about 1750, from which the movement of the modern 
era was to spread all over the world. Give a brief account of the 
progress of science, art, and literature in England during the 
seventeenth century, (pp. 723-4.) What indications do we 
have that England during the seventeenth century had risen to 
the place of first importance in European affairs? (pp. 724-5.) 

Summary. — The period of absolutism saw the fight for free¬ 
dom in England. From this time on England becomes the lead¬ 
ing battleground for social and political freedom. Democracy 
grew out of tfie Congregational wing of Calvinism, as did also 
religious toleration. England was the first country to vindicate 
the doctrine that authority in government (sovereignty) proceeds 
not from God but from the people of a nation. The “Glorious 
Revolution” was a harbinger of the revolutions of the eighteenth 
and ninteenth centuries. 













































































































































































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